ALTERNATIVE LATIN

PRINCIPLES

(1) Spot the PATTERN in its simplest form (as in mathematics).

(2) From the pattern identify the STEM and the ENDING (for convenience below we often separate these by a hyphen).

(3) Learn examples that conform to the pattern (regular).

(4) Learn examples that deviate from the pattern (irregular).

NOUNS                                                 [Kennedy 32]

5 Patterns or "declensions".

Identify by the ending of the genitive singular (from dictionary):

(1) -ae  (2)  -i  (3) -is  (4) -ûs  (5) -ei

Wnat precedes this is called the STEM from which we decline the rest of the noun according to the pattern.

ADJECTIVES                                                    [K 70-75]

2 Basic patterns related to noun declensions.

(1) 1st/2nd declension.

Masculine            has endings like 2nd declension nouns in -us or -er

Feminine             has endings like 1st declension nouns in -a

Neuter                 has endings like 2nd declension nouns in -um      Eg:

                           M                     F                      N

   nominative         bon-us              bon-a                bon-um :           good [K 71]

   genitive             bon-i                 bon-ae              bon-i

(2) 3rd declension.

Decline like masculine, feminine and neuter nouns of the 3rd declension (exception: ablative often ends in -i).  Masculine and feminine are often identical.     Eg:

                           M                     F                      N

   nominative         ingens               ingens               ingens:             huge [K 74]

   genitive             ingent-is            ingent-is            ingent-is

VERBS                                                             [K 111-112]

4 Patterns or "conjugations".  Identify by present infinitive, the second of its principle parts (column (B) below).  This gives the present stem; perfect stem from perfect indicative ((C) below).

                        (A)                    (B)                    (C)                    (D)

            Conjug- Present Present             Perfect              Supine

            ation     indicative           infinitive indicative

            (1)        am(a)-o             ama-re              amav-i               amat-um :         love

            (2)        mone-o             monê-re            monu-i              monit-um :         advise

            (3)        reg-o                 reg-ere              rex-i                  rect-um :           rule

            (4)        audi-o               audi-re              audiv-i               audit-um :          hear

INDICATIVE ACTIVE                                          [K 116-119]

            [           Present stem     ]                                  [             Perfect stem                            ]

            Pres                 Future               Imperf               Perfect              Future               Plu-

                                    simple                                                               perfect              perfect

Conjugations (1) and (2):

1s         -o                     -bo                    -bam                 -i                      -ero                   -eram

2s         -s                     -bis                   -bas                  -isti                   -eris                  -eras

3s         -t                      -bit                    -bat                   -it                     -erit                   -erat

1pl        -mus                 -bimus              -bamus             -imus    -           erimus              -eramus

2pl        -tis                    -bitis                 -batis                -itis                   -eritis                -eratis

3pl        -nt                    -bunt                 -bant                 -erunt                -erint                 -erant

Conjugations (3) and (4):

1s         -o                     -am                   -ebam               As conjugations (1) and (2)

2s         -(i)s                   -es                    -ebas

3s         -(i)t                   -et                    -ebat

1pl        -(i)mus              -emus               -ebamus

2pl        -(i)tis                 -etis                  -ebatis

3p         -unt                   -ent                   -ebant

IMPERATIVE MOOD, ACTIVE                                        [K 116-119]

Singular:           Present stem:                ama,                 monê,               rege,                 audi

Plural:               Present stem + te:         ama-te,             monê-te,                                   audi-te

                        but note                                                                        reg-ite

Irregular 3rd conjugation singular imperatives                    [K 118n]

            Dico:     dic        - say

            Duco:    duc       - lead

            Fero:     fer         - bear, bring

            Facio:   fac        - do, make

Prohibitions                                                                   [K 349]

 Noli (s) or nolite (pl) followed by present infinitive ((B) above)

            Noli regere:        Do not rule

INDICATIVE PASSIVE                                                   [K 120-123]

Present, future simple and imperfect tenses - start with the active form and then substitute so that

1s         -o or -m  becomes          -or or -r

2s         -s                                 -ris        (but regeris not regiris

3s         -t                                  -tur       in present for 3rd

1pl        -mus                             -mur      conjugation)

2pl        -tis                                -mini

3pl        -nt                                -ntur

             For instance "He shall be ruled" is reg-etur.

Perfect, future perfect, pluperfect passive are formed from a combination of perfect participle passive (see below) and

                        present,            future or            imperfect tense of sum, respectively as

                        amatus sum,     amatus ero,       amatus eram                  

PARTICIPLES

Present Participle Active                         [K 116-119]

Present stem + (e)ns

            ama-ns,            monê-ns,           reg-ens,            audi-ens

            Meaning: loving etc

These decline like a 3rd Declension adjective with stem ending nt-, like ingens, (gen ingent-is)   [K 74]

Future Participle Active                                      [K 116-119]

Stem from supine ((D) above), dropping the -um)

Ending -urus declines as 1st/2nd declension adjective

            amat-urus,         monit-urus,        rect-urus,          audit-urus.

            Meaning: about to love etc

Perfect Participle Passive                                   [K 120-123]

Stem from supine ((D) above, dropping the -um)

Ending -us declines as 1st/2nd declension adjective

            amat-us,           monit-us,           rect-us,             audit-us

            Meaning: having been loved, etc

It is also combined in the nominative (all genders), with parts of sum to generate compound passive forms.  For instance in the perfect passive indicative

            "They (f. pl) have been loved" is amat-ae sunt

            (literally, "They are having been loved").

INFINITIVES

Present Infinitive Active                                       [K 116-119]

As (B) above.

Perfect Infinitive Active                                        [K 116-119]

From (C) above: add -isse to perfect stem:

            amav-isse,         monu-isse,        rex-isse,            audiv-isse

            Meaning: to have loved etc

Future Infinitive Active                                         [K 116-119]

Future participle active + esse:

            amaturus esse,              moniturus esse etc

            Meaning: to be about to love etc

Present Infinitive Passive                                    [K 120-123]

As present infinitive active, final e replaced by i:

            ama-ri,              monê-ri,                        audi-ri

            Exception  reg-i

            Meaning: to be loved etc

Perfect Infinitive Passive                         [K 120-123]

Perfect participle passive + esse:

            amatus esse,    monitus esse,    rectus esse,      auditus esse

            Meaning: to have been loved (literally, to be having been loved) etc

Future Infinitive Passive                          [K 120-123]

Supine + iri:

            amatum iri,        monitum iri etc

            Meaning: to be about to be loved etc

SUBJUNCTIVES

Present Subjunctive Active                                  [K 116-119]

Present stem + -am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant

            eg reg-am, reg-as, reg-at etc.

Exception 1st conj am-em, am-es, am-et, am-emus, am-etis, am-ent.

Present subjunctive is often translated "may" or "let".

Imperfect Subjunctive Active                                [K 116-119]

Present infinitive active + -m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt

            eg regere-m, regere-s, regere-t etc

             Imperfect subjunctive is often translated "might", "were to" or "would".

Perfect Subjunctive Active                                   [K 116-119]

As future perfect indicative but 1st sing ends -erim.

Pluperfect Subjunctive Active                              [K 116-119]

Perfect infinitive active + -m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt

            eg rexisse-m, rexisse-s, rexisse-t ...

Pluperfect subjunctive is often translated "would have".

Present and Imperfect Subjunctives Passive         [K 120-123]

As the active forms, making the usual substitutions (-m becomes -r etc) to get the passive.

Perfect Subjunctive Passive                    [K 120-123]

Perfect participle passive + present subjunctive of sum:

            amatus sim, sis, sit; amati simus, sitis, sint

Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive                            [K 120-123]

Perfect participle passive + imperfect subjunctive of sum:

            amatus essem, essês, esset; amati essêmus, essêtis, essent.

GERUND AND GERUNDIVE                               [K 107]

The gerund is a neuter active verbal noun meaning "the act of" doing.  It is formed by adding -(e)ndum to the present stem and declines like a 2nd declension neuter noun.  Thus

            ama-ndum, monê-ndum, reg-endum, audi-endum  [K 116-119]

The gerundive is an adjective, passive in meaning, as "fit to be" or, "ought to be" done.  It is formed like the gerund but with the endings of a 1st/2nd declension adjective ama-nd-us, -a, -um etc.  So audiendus means "fit to be heard" or "ought to be heard"            [K 120-123]

PRONOUNS                                                      [K 94-101c]

            is,         ea,        id                      that,      or         he, she, it

            hic,       haec,    hoc                   this,      or         he, she, it

            ille,       illa,       illud                  that,      or         he, she, it

            iste,      ista,      istud                 that (often pejorative)

            idem,    eadem, idem                 the same (declines like is, ea, id)

            ipse,     ipsa,     ipsum               self

            qui,       quae,    quod                 who, which (relative), or

                                                            who?, what? (interrogative)

            quis,     quis,     quid                  who?, what?

            alius,    alia,      aliud                 (some or an-)other

            alter,     altera,   alterum             one or the other (of two)

Summary                                                          [K 100,102]

Pronouns broadly follow the pattern of 1st/2nd declension adjectives.  But

            genitives singular often end -ius

            datives   singular often end -i.

Pronouns beginning ali- mean "some ..."

            eg aliquis, someone;      aliquot, some number.

Pronouns beginning t- often translate "so" or "such"

            eg tam, so;                    tot, so many

                tantus, so great;        talis, of such a kind, such

Pronouns beginning qu- often translate by an English "wh-" or "how".  Eg:

            qui and quis:      who, which, what (above)

            quam:               how, as;                        quot: how many

            quantus:            how great;                     qualis: of what kind

Pronouns ending -cumque denote -ever, -soever:  Eg:

            quicumque:       whoever, whatever

Parallelisms are common : tam...quam; tot...quot; alter...alter etc  [K 335]

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

Indirect statement (reported speech) (Substantival/noun)

In classical Latin this is normally done by            [K 414]

            subject in the accusative

            verb in the infinitive

            "that" omitted, eg

                        Scio eum bonum esse - I know that he is good

                        (Literally, I know him to be good)

In Church Latin this may be done by quia / quod (that) with the indicative.

Consecutive clauses (Adverbial)              [K 421-422]

Anticipated by some form of "so" in the main clause

            (eg ita, tam, sic, or tot "so many", tantus "so great")

            Then ut (that, with the subjunctive) (negative, ut non)

Final clauses (Adverbial)                         [K 423]

            Ut (so that / in order to, with a subjunctive)

            Ne (so that not, in order not, like ut)

            (Note: ut on its own or with an indicative usually means "as", like sicut "just as")

Causal clauses (Adverbial)                                  [K 424-426]

            quia / quod (because, with the indicative or subjunctive)

            Cum (since, with the subjunctive)

Temporal clauses (Adverbial)                               [K 427-436]

            cum (when, with indicative or (in the past) subjunctive)

            antequam (before) } both normally with the indicative

            postquam (after)    }

Conditional clauses (Adverbial)                            [K 437-443]

            Si (if, with indicative or subjunctive)

            Nisi (if not / unless, like si)

Concessive clauses (Adverbial)                           [K 444-447]

            Etsi, etiamsi, tametsi (even if, with indic. or subj.)

            Quamquam (although, with the indicative)

            Quamvis, licet (although, with the subjunctive)

Relative clauses (Adjectival)                                [K 450]

            Qui, quae, quod (who / which, with an indicative)

ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE                          [K 237]

The ablative absolute takes the form of two ablatives in succession.  One is a noun or pronoun, the other is usually a participle.  Attempt a translation along the lines of

            "When the <noun> is / was / had been <participle>"

 and then rephrase into smoother English when you have understood it.  Eg

            Caesare venturo:            When Caesar is about to come, ie

                                                Caesar being on his way

Most commonly the participle is  PRESENT (in which case ACTIVE) or

                                                PERFECT (in which case PASSIVE):

            caenantibus omnibus : when all were eating

            his auditis : when these things had been heard

CONJUNCTIONS                                               [K 236-238]

Conjunctions regularly encountered include

            et         : and

            atque    : and

            at         : but

            sed       : but

            autem   : but, however (2nd word)

            vero      : but, moreover (2nd word)

            nam      : for

            enim     : for (2nd word)

            ergo      }

            itaque   } : therefore (usually 2nd word)

            igitur     }

            etiam    : also

            quoque  : also (2nd word)

RULES FOR UNSEENS

Initially:

(1) Read the passage twice over to try and identify the context.

Apply the following suggestions for each sentence:

(2) Identify the separate main and subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses are often but not always enclosed in commas.

(3) Try bracketing off subordinate clauses and other units as you find them so as to clarify the structure.

Apply the following suggestions for each clause, starting with the main clause:

(4) Find the verb.  This is often but not always the last word in the clause.

(5) Parse the verb :  identify voice (active / passive), number (singular / plural), person (1st / 2nd / 3rd), mood (indicative / subjunctive / imperative / infinitive etc)

(6) Identify its subject (a noun or pronoun in the nominative case, or built into the verb?)

(7) Identify the object if any in the accusative or perhaps dative case (indirect objects)

(8) Look for any ablative absolutes (active / passive)

(9) Look for parallel structuring:                              [K 179]  Eg:

               aut ... aut          : either ... or

               vel ... vel            : either ... or

               sive ... sive        : whether ... or

               nec ... nec (or, neque ... neque) : neither ... nor

               tam ... quam      : so ... as (etc see PRONOUNS above)

When you find words you do not know:

(10) Mentally put "something" until you can make a sensible guess.

(11) With compound verb stems (simple verb name preceded by a preposition eg re-, con-, pre-, ad-, in-, ab-, per-), try first translating the simple stem on its own.  Then see what flavour is added by the proposition (eg per- often suggests "completely").  Eg

               convocare:         vocare means to call; convocare, to call together.

               abicere:             iacere means to throw; abicere, to throw away.

               pervenire:          venire means to come; pervenire, to arrive at.

(This doesn't work for invenio which means to find, not come in! - English "invention")

(12) Look for English derivatives.  These often come from the supine eg frango, I break, has supine fractum, from which we get "fracture".

                                                                                    Martin Mosse,

                                                                                    August 1998.

Written to accompany Church Latin for Beginners - An Elementary Course of Exercises in Ecclesiastical Latin by J. E. Lowe, M.A. (London: Burnes Oates & Washbourne Ltd, 1930).